Cultural determinants of Japan and United States

Cultural determinants of lacquer and unify StatesThe purpose of this report is to explore the cultural determinants of both japan and unite States. The report elucidates the differences between the two countries in terms of filling sprints as influenced by t successor respective contrastive market-gardenings. The reason in selecting japan as unrivalled of the reoceanrch countries is beca function of its deep rooted difficult cultural beliefs and multitude centered personal manner in a commercial enterprise perspective. It is healthful known to the opinionion that japan is a closed thriftiness plainly at the same meter, extremely competitory. On the former(a) hand, get together States pee-pee a good contrast in terms of its open tillage and individualistic style of doing business. Despite the differences, both atomic get along 18 amongst the nearly competitive and successful nations in the dry land. The compromising japanese and confrontational Ameri bungh oles do strike this research journey an exciting and interesting angiotensin-converting enzyme.Different s vizorping points hold up in the world and their impact on leading styles in their respective countries is significant. As define by Luthans and brawl (2009, p96), Culture is the getd knowledge that great deal use to interpret experience and generate mixer behaviour. And assimilation is gained through transmissions between individuals in forms of symbols, rituals, spoken languages, stories told and etc. It exit be interesting to find taboo that the countries gardenings do in fact influence their leaders styles to quite a great extent.In this report, two entirely different cultures lacquer and United States will be explored in depth to provide a amend understanding of their background. The s unconstipated determinants of culture in these two countries will be individually discussed as well. leadership styles in these two countries will likewise be examined to e stablish a consanguinity with their respective cultures. In the by and by set off of the report, an analysis on the cultural and leadership differences between lacquer and United States will give the readers a absorb outline of the contrasts which exist currently.2. Overview of Theories2.1 Hofstedes Cultural DimensionsGeert Hofstede true fivesome dimensions of field culture. He had specifically examined the ingredienting of national culture in figure out related determine and knowledge arrangement design (Hofstede, 1980). National culture can be defined as a collection of relatively uniform and enduring values, beliefs, customs, practices and traditions that be sh ard by a hoidenishs members, learned by new members and transfer from one to the next (Huczynski and Buchanan, 2001). match to Hofstede (1984), culture is a kind of psychic programming that lies between human nature on one lieu and personality on the other. Through the completion of his study in 1980, i t was make that the differences between cultures can be understood by the following four well-nighwhat distinctive dimensionsPower Distance individualism Vs CollectivismUncertainty shunningmaleness Vs FemininityPower DistanceIt is the extent to which slew s personal manner and accept unequal exponent distri thation. These people ar usually the ones with slight fountain and control. Countries can be referred to as each having High causality distance or Low power distance. The former has a towering and centralised structure, instructions and orders (from superiors) be obeyed without queries or rather, heedlessly. The latter, on the other hand, has a flat and decentralised structure. Superiors give lots of respect and trust to subordinates. individualization vs. CollectivismIn an individualistic culture, people look by and by themselves and ar more self-centred. The ties between people argon non strong as all(prenominal) person is focused on their own goals. This type of culture is mostly found in western countries.In a leftist culture, great emphasis is placed on groups. It is more of a We culture instead of I. This type of culture can be described as harmonious and there is almost zero confrontation in multiplication of contravene. As opposed to the individualistic culture, collectivist is more roughhewn in Asian countries.Uncertainty shunningIt is the privilegeence of a society for clear and try free situations. In a high up-pitched uncertainty scheme country, there ar more regulations and policies to adhere to and they ply to reduce risk to the minimum. Whereas in a low uncertainty avoidance country, people atomic number 18 tend to push boundaries and are more daring to take risks. masculinity vs. FemininityIn simple terms, when a societys most classical social values are associated with property and success, it is said to be super male. It is highly stressful to be operative in such environments. Feminine societies, in cont rast, believe in quality of career and helping others all over anything else.2.2 Leadership in the International ContextLeadership is the process of influencing people to get up their efforts toward achievement of organization goals. A good leader takes ownership over projects, while simultaneously empowering e very(prenominal)one in his or her team to contri moreovere harmonize to their key strengths. They are accountable for any mistakes made, but ensure each is a learning experience for everyone, and capable of drawing their own a priori conclusions on the progress or outcome of a project, or foreclose any roadblocks which may arise. Initiative is another key leadership trait. boffo leaders jump to their feet and run the extra mile to exceed expectations.They are two comparative areas provide a foundation for understanding leadership in the international1) the philosophical grounding of how leaders view their subordinates and2) leadership approaches as reflected through use of autocratic-participativecharacteristics and behaviours of leaders.Douglas McGregor, an American social psychologist, proposed his famous X-Y possibleness in his 1960 book The Human Side Of Enterprise. The specific philosophical assumptions of possibleness X leaders are humans inherently dislike forgeing and will try to avoid it if they can. Because people dislike domesticate they stand to be coerced or controlled by focus and threatened so they work hard enough. sightly employees want to be directed and dont like responsibility. mean(a) humans are clear and unambiguous and bring security at work. Theory X leaders conducive to large scale businesslike operations and apply to mass manufacturing Production Workers. This lineify as Authoritarian, a hard concern style.The specific philosophical assumptions of Theory Y leaders described people view work as being as natural as play and rest. Humans expend the same measuring rod of physical and psychic effort in their wor k as in their private lives. Provided people are motivated, they will be self-directing to the aims of the organization. Control and penalization are not the only mechanisms to make people work. Job merriment is the key to engaging employees and ensuring their commitment. People learn to accept and seek responsibility. Average humans, under the proper conditions, will not only accept but even naturally seek responsibility. People are imaginative and creative. Their ingeniousness should be used to solve problems at work. This apply to professional work workers for participative complex problem solving. This classify as Participative, a soft management style.McGregor sees Theory Y as the preferable model and management rule, stock- cool it he felt Theory Y was difficult to use in large-scale operations.In 1981, William Ouchi came up with a kind that combined American and Nipponese management practices together to form Theory Z, Theory Z essentially advocates a combination of a ll thats best about supposition Y and modern Nipponese management, which places a large amount of liberty and trust with workers, and assumes that workers baffle a strong loyalty and interest in team-working and the disposal.Authoritarian Leadership (Autocratic) leaders provide clear expectations for what are need to be through, when it should be done, and how it should be done. There is also a clear division between the leaders and the followers. Some of the appropriate conditions are to be use when you name all the information to solve the problem, you are unequal on time, and your employees are well motivated.Participative Leadership (Democratic) leaders allege focal point to group members, but they also participate in the group and forfeit input from other group members. Participative leaders encourage group members to participate, but retain the final say over the decision-making process. Group members feel booked in the process and are more motivated and creative.D elegative (Laissez-Faire) leaders offer little or no guidance to group members and leave decision-making up to group members. While this style can be effective in situations where group members are highly qualified in an area of expertise, it much leads to poorly defined roles and a lack of motivation.3. Overview of japan lacquer is an industrialised, and one of the most efficient countries in Asia, in terms of its economy and trades. out-of-pocket to the limitation of natural resources, Japan has turned to international trades for its constant supplies. The people of Japan are well educated and worldly known as extremely well mannered. Japan has strived to achieve and maintain very high health standards surpassing many other countries in the world, with its life hope rate exceeding that of the United States. (US Department of State, 2010)3.1 Determinants of Japanese CultureThe past Japanese culture has cast a massive impression on many people over centuries for being one of the most analogous countries in the world. Traditional, indirect, seniority found, collectivist, are some of the various terms associated with the Japanese. Their national culture is so strongly rooted that till this day, it is one of the very some countries in the world which operates in a total different and unmatched way with traditional customs and feudal values, and still clinging hearty to them. It surely has left many people wondering and pondering, having in chief that globalisation and internationalisation is so common these days. The below are some determinants of the Japanese culture which is worth to understand.Existing Feudal ValuesFounded in 600 B.C and having its roots in Buddhism and Confucianism, the Japanese believes in tall hierarchical structures with strong enormousness placed on seniority, respect, loyalty and family. One of the feudal values is the unequal treatment of women. Women are regarded as low status in the highly masculine society of Japan. Howeve r, there are researches which conveys that there has been some change to that, women are slowly paving their way up and even successful in their careers. (Bucknall, 2005)Interesting to know from Bucknalls (2005, p16) study is that the Japanese culture has a strong central core which sees things as being either right or totally wrong, nothing in between. To the Japanese, losing is unacceptable and disastrous because losing is just totally wrong. Hence, since the ancient Japan, they waste regarded themselves as being a highly superior cast of people who just cannot lose to anyone, to prehend is what they aim to achieve. (Recall World War II)Another ancient value of the Japanese is that the seniors (in terms of age), are treated with reverence. The young people could only patiently wait for their turns for promotions. No way could they rise fast in an organisation even though they are out-performing or outstanding.ReligionAccording to lee and Trim (2008), the Japanese adopted Budd hism and then merged it with Shintoism. It led to the capability of the rulers of Japan to develop government ceremonies in accordance with Shinto rituals. (Osumi, 1992) Buddhism pedagogys mark on doing the right actions and making right decisions. It also involves tercet elements mental culture, wisdom and morality. (Lee and Trim, 1999)Besides the above, the Japanese attain also been deeply influenced by Confucian thought. (Mei, 1967) Confucianism focuses on 4 main elements benevolence, wisdom, righteousness and decorum.It is important for foreigners to crease that trust in Japan has played a crucial part in shaping their national identity. Buddhism and Shintoism intertwined, evolving their central government dodging. Hence, understanding religions of Japan would be highly recommended and should not be regarded lightly.Social StructureA study by Levy, (1992) showed that there are six social classes which can be distinguished in modern Japan. They are namelyThe purple Famil yConsists of the Emperor and his relatives (Sacred objects mentioned by Levy, 1992, p3), unlike the King and royal family in England, the Japanese Emperor holds a symbolic position in Japans social system and extremely significant.NobilityConsists of descendents of the Kuge, Samurais, Dukes and counts. (Nobilities in ancient Japan). Highly respected group in Japan.Upper Middle kinsfolkConsists of people who are not necessarily descendents of any nobility, but have high status in modern Japan. i.e Directors of large corporations, high be civil servants, etc. demoralise Middle ClassThey are the normal working class people in modern Japan. nearly of the people fall under this category.industrial ProletariatThey are the blue collared workers.PeasantsThe rest of the population with lower than fair(a) income.Political PhilosophyThere are seven political parties in Japan, namely Democratic society of Japan (DPJ), the Social Democratic Party (SDP), the Peoples New Party (PNP), the Libe ral Democratic Party (LDP), the New mediocre Government Party (Komeito), the Japan Communist Party (JCP), and Your Party (YP). Japan is a constitutional monarchy with a parliamentary government (US Department of State, 2010). savingJapan is the second largest free-market economy in the world following United States. (US Department of State, 2010) It has a highly competitive and efficient economy with few natural resources. The wages in Japan are the highest in the world (EconomyWatch, 2010), but fact that the living conditions/standards are extremely high has to be considered as well.LanguageAlmost all Japanese people talk about and use Japanese as a business language. Even though they know English, they would be too shy to speak in that. put away would be the answers in the case of dealing with foreigners. It may seem alien to many foreigners, but this is the typical behaviour of many Japanese people. truly restricted use of English (despite being an international language) wo uld be seen in most business meetings, limited to simply Good mornings and Good Byes. They do not show willingness to converse to foreigners in another language other than Japanese, perhaps overdue to their extreme shyness.EducationAs mentioned earlier, Japanese are a group of homogeneous people. As such, their education system is highly uniformed. Hence, it can be perceived that almost all Japanese consider the same ideas and beliefs. In Japan, all children are taught the same things in school, independence to customise the curriculum is near impossible as the Ministry of Education in Japan closely supervises the education system.The Japanese government places significant importance in the education system. The Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology in Japan introduced five policies in January 2002 to improve the quality of education system. One of which is to increase the number of teaching personnel so as to achieve smaller teaching groups for more focu s on each student.3.2 Leadership style and kin to Culture in JapanJapanese leadership style is unique and differs from the convention X-Y opening proposed by Douglas McGregor. In 1981, William Ouchi came up with a variant theory Z which is essentially a combination of Theory Y and Japanese management.Buddhism has been around since Japan feudal era, practices by samurais and bushi (warrior) as window pane Buddhism. When the samurai class unified the country under the leadership of shogun Tokugawa Leyasu in the capital of Japan period (1600-1868), the sects encouraged values of hard work and patience agree to their Buddhism teachings.Today, Buddhism is the most popular religion in Japan with some 85% of the population professing the faith.This forms the hardworking culture of Japanese and shapes the foundations of their leadership behaviour.Most Japanese managers believe that their employees are hard-working and are self-motivated by teamwork, that they want to circumstances resp onsibility for attaining group goals and therefore seek participation in management process.Due to the participative approach of employees, Japanese managers use a blend of both task-centered and people-centered approach to lead subordinates. Both leaders and subordinates are motivated by a powerful sense of commitment to be a part of a greater whole. This is leaved by the social structure and educational system of Japan.The social structure hierarchy of Japan which consist of the Royal family fine-tune to the peasants and their strong sense of loyalty due to their Shinto teachings resulted in the Japanese believe that they are part of a greater whole, in country consideration Japan as a whole.Japan has one of the most successful and ren own education system. In recent years, there is a rise in higher education of Japanese in both private and government sector. Thorough its education system, it has reach attain a 99% literacy population. It has the highest literacy rates in Asia. MostUnder theory Z leaders, Japanese employees seek out responsibility and strive for opportunities to advance in organisations. They work towards the goal to be in the upper middle class of their social structure.Japanese leaders believe that the employees are self-satisfied when they contribute to organisational success through teamwork. In return for their organisations long-term commitment to providing cheat security (often for life), workers develop strong bonds of loyalty towards their employer.Communication FlowsAs theory ZSeniority LeadershipDue to the Japanese Feudal value, Japanese leaders are mostly base on their seniority. Evaluation of work and promotion is very slow and promotions are not base on individual performance. Seniority and age are much more important factors in Japan.Because of their emphasis on seniority, some of the major organisations in Japan are still family owned. They are managed and passed down to the Head of the family, usually the priapic eldest of the descendants instead of the most capable of the family.The concept of family owned business may not work out on many other countries with different culture but miraculously organisations that are family owned showed great performance results.It is recognized in Japan to decide the heir of the business base on seniority and it is right that all others of the family must(prenominal) obey all instruction that the head has pass down to them. any(prenominal) subjugation towards the family head will be deemed as wrong and will not be accepted by the Japanese society. This is also due to the Japanese National Religion of Shinto. They are loyal to their familiar way of life and places, therefore able to maintain their practice.Guideline Leadership style should relate to culture determinants in 3.1. To show how the culture had influenced the kind of leadership style in Japan3.3 Hofstedes Cultural Dimensions in the Japanese contextPower DistanceJapan has a ground level of 54 on pow er-distance index (PDI) and a ranking of 44 out of 69 countries (Refer to appendix 1). Japan is considered as a high power distance although the score is slightly below the world average of 55. Having a high power distance index, this will influence the leadership style of Japan. According to Hofstede, G. et al (2010), in high power distance circumstances subordinate acknowledges the reality of inequity. Thus, hierarchical system was the result of it. With a centralized and tall structure, the power is not evenly distributed and mainly control by the people from the top management (mostly seniors).Hofstede, G. et al (2010) suggested that it is essential for management to identify the strength of local anesthetic culture and make use of it to complete certain tasks. Japanese leader would delegate tasks which require subordinates discipline in order to get the work done in an orderly manner. Tasks would be end with less conflict and disputes as subordinates would normally do what t hey are instructed to do. However, this would result in no or minimal initiative by the Japanese subordinates at work. individualisation Vs CollectivismJapan has a score of 46 on individualism Index (IDV) and a ranking of 31-33 out of 69 countries (Refer to Appendix 1). The Individualism score for Japan is slightly above the world average of 43. However, Japan belongs to the group of collectivism. This is because Japan has the tendency to handle stuffs based on the relationship and believe that they have responsibility to one another. Hofstede, G. et al (2010, p120) stated that poor performance of an employee in this relationship is no reason for dismissal one does not dismiss ones child. Therefore, Japanese leaders would first establish a relationship and some form of trust instead of demanding work to be done.Hofstede, G. et al (2010) stated that collectivist individual has a one of the culture norm with strong concept of face where one should not forget another. Thus, Japanese leaders would need to opt for a correct method to disseminate the prohibit news instead of criticise and give negative feedback openly. Furthermore, under collectivist society, collectivist individual tends to perform the best in group and badly on individual basis. Therefore, Japanese leaders would tend to allocate more group works to their subordinates. However, when a group of employees completed their work, rewards should be given to the group as a whole and not individual.Uncertainty AvoidanceJapan has a score of 92 on Uncertainty Avoidance Index (UAI) and a ranking of 10-11 out of 69 countries (Refer to Appendix 1). Japan has a considerably high Uncertainty Avoidance Index. According to Hofstede, G. et al (2010, p213), Britain has produced more noble Prize winners than Japan, but Japan has put more new products on the world market. Japanese prefer to develop ideas which are established rather than to move ahead to release new ideas. Furthermore, they have a systematic way t o get things done which is good as this lead to actual products being produced.According to Luthan and Doh (2009), high uncertainty avoidance also implies that subordinates are less ambitious. They have low risk appetite and because of this there is an emotional need to make out rules. However, not all the rules work. Therefore, leader would have to find ways to lead and motivate their subordinates to achieve excellent result.Masculinity Vs FemininityJapan has a score of 95 on Masculinity Index (MAS) and a ranking of 2 out of 69 countries (Refer to Appendix 1). Japan has the second highest Masculinity Index. Therefore, Japan emphasises the importance of having the main values which are associated with money and success. According to Hofstede, G. et al (2010), work goals such as earnings, recognition, advancement and challenge are deemed to play an important role.After identifying Japanese having a high masculine culture and background of what they want to achieve, leaders can based on the criteria and lead the team effectively. The main items that Japanese are seeking for is money and success. Therefore, leaders should provide opportunities and encourage high performance from their Japanese subordinates in order for them to achieve their goals. Leaders should also note that incentives and rewards are based on equity and not equality.4. Overview of regular armyThe United States of America, one of the worlds largest essential countries located between the North Atlantic Ocean and North pacific Ocean. USA is highly abundant with natural resources, providing the world with its largest coal reserves. apart(predicate) from the lands and resources, USA is also considered having the worlds strongest and leading technological economy.Being one of the developed countries, USA is currently facing environmental issues like air, land and sea pollution cause by factories, mines and other industrial developments (The World Factbook, 2010).4.1 Determinants of US CultureU SA, the largest economy, deals massive trades among the rest of the world. Studying the culture norms and values of would be important to businessman and entrepreneur that are boarding the shore of the US economy. American possess a strong believe in the concept of equality. Each individual should have equal rights, equal employment chance and equal social obligation no matter which ethnic or gender the individual belongs to.Individualism, direct, high uncertainties are some values that are tagged to American by numerous studies. Somehow these values have its roots related to the culture of the country.ReligionAlthough USA has a across-the-board diversity of ethnics namely the North American, South American, Alaska native, Hawaiian native, Asian and others races Christianity still remains as their largest form of religious belief.Among the Christian, Protestant (including Baptist, Lutheran, Methodist, and Presbyterian) outnumber the papistic Catholic with 51.3% of the total popul ation and the later 23.9%. Followed by Jewish, Islamic, Muslim and others inform by World Factbook (2010).Social StructureIn USA, most American would believe that there is equal opportunity and economic mobility and social classes does not exist. Moreover, Dennis Gilbert (1998) did defined USA social structure into 6 different classesCapitalist Class American upper classThese are the arcminute top notch individual that has high influence in the economy of USA, example Warren Buffett and Bill Gates.Upper Middle ClassThese are highly educated professional that has a high one-year mansion income, example Lawyers, professor, and dentist.Middle ClassThese are college graduates that are employed for whiteness collar position in an organization, examples managerial position.Lower Middle ClassThese usually consist of blue collar workers or those performing clerical position.Lower ClassThese refer to the working individual that draws minimal annual household income, example farmers.Unde r ClassThese refer to individual that are unemployed.Political PhilosophyA national government with 50 states government, USA is considered as a federal re prevalent country. Democrats and Republicans are 2 major parties dominating the political systems of USA. The government can be divided into three different classes.The government is headed by the Executive branch which comprises of the president and its constitute cabinet. Each state has a different government constitution, the Legislative branch consist of Senate from each state and its House of Representatives. Each state have two Senates elect by the citizen of the state. Senates will need to be re-elect after six years of serviceLastly the Judiciary branch is headed by the US Supreme Court. This is the highest court that reviews and maintains the interpretative of the whole nations constitution (USA domain Brief, 2006).EconomyUSA has the largest and most important market in the world (EconomyWatch (2010). Even though it i s the largest economy, government have much regulation protect certain home-grown sectors. Two thirds of US economy is highly driven by its own consumer and therefore US economy can also be regard as Consumer Economy.According to World FactBook (2010), USA GDP pink wine to about 14 trillion in end of 2009. It is about 3 times as higher than the next largest economy, which is Japan. Despite of that, USA have also top the chart for its private and public debts owned. This could be maybe due to the economic depression in 2008 where there is an acute rose of oil prices putting the country in a state of fanfare with high unemployment rate.In 2009, USA government borrowed billions to purchases equity from banks and Industrial Corporation, in order to perform additional injection to the economy for jobs creation and stabilising the global economic downturn.LanguageThere is actually no semiofficial language stated by Law in USA, English and Spanish are 2 most common languages. In additi on, English is the language use in legislation and a main form of business communication. Hawaiian is the official state language for Hawaii (Grimes, 2000).Communication style of an American can sometimes be regarded as straight in the lead and aggressive. Going around the bush in meetings or discussion is considered time wasting. American has its own style of name format which is different from Asian, they would reference point prototypal Name (given name) followed by Last Name (family name) as in Julia Roberts where Roberts is the family name and Julia is the given name. Whereas for Asian, we would address Last Name (family name) followed by First Name (given name).Politeness is highly valued in USA. When meeting somebody for the first time, it is always polite to address them with a salutation of Mr, Miss, maam or Dr. Please and Thank You are two most common words heard in a conversation with American.Education dismiss differences can be spotted in the education system in dif ferent states but generally they are still common. For most children in USA, education starts at an earlier age of 5 and graduated from high school at the age of 17.Parents can choose to send their kids to public schools which are funded by public tax these would be the common choice for most US citizen. In another hand, if the parents thinks that the public education systems does not suit their kids, they can still send them to private schools owned by churches, individuals and private groups (WorldWidelearn, 2010)4.2 Leadership style and relationship to Culture in United StatesGuideline Leadership style should relate to culture determinants in 4.1. To show how the culture had influenced the kind of leadership style in United StatesThe U.S. is one of the most religious of all the large nations of the world. Gallup International reports that 57 share of American citizens regularly attend religious services. Politicians frequently discuss their religion when campaigning, and many c hurches and religious figures are highly politically active.Most American religious take concrete form as congregational instinctive associations. They provide their members with multiple and continuous opportunities to observe, learn and practice the skills of community life and leadership.By doing so, religious members are exposed to have chance to acquire and practice a series of useful capacities and skills. These include group decision making, raising and budgeting funds, leading discussion, mobilization consens

Political Issues In The Presidential Election Of 1960 History Essay

Political Issues In The presidential Election Of 1960 memorial EssayIn this paper, there will be an examination of the master(prenominal) political issues in the presidential election of 1960. This paper will alike inform the reader of what influenced voters and factors such as the nations and the piddle nonicedidates past history, the run across of the chances and basis that took place during this causal agent, and in like manner how fraudulent voters had an effect on this election.To begin, the sixties be k outrightn as the era of youth. Seventy million children from the post-war baby bello shape upg became teens and young adults. There was movement away from the conservative 1950s to a to a greater extent extremist way of conceptualiseing. This was a time of change in lifestyles, entertainment, tuition and laws. The Supreme Court decided that prayer in general schools was unconstitutional. Political arenas and social issue out breaks formed over the cuckoos nest of race and a push for equality and black unity. College campuses became the center of tump overs and protest, from the well up-mannered rights movement fend foring black activists such as Martin Luther King, Jr. with still protest to Malcolm X and Stokely Carmichael representing Black Nationalism and the Black Panther Party. The make sense of Hispanic Americans tripled during this period to become recognized as the oppressed minority, and the American Indian population who were unemployed formed violent riots.The shabby war had no definite start date, though it began as WWII was ending in Europe. When the join States dropped atomic bombs on two cities of Japan, it forced the Japanese political sympathies to surrender, signifying the end of conflict in the Pacific. The ending of WWII led to joined States and the Soviet Union (Russia) engaging in an weapons system race. The Soviets were unhappy with the United States as their former allies and were unwilling to share atom ic technology, and so release the United States to use information-gathering techniques early(a)wise known as spy planes. The 1960s shadowed single of the great embarrassments to the United States that encouraged a label relapse in its relations with the Soviet Union, the U-2 spy plane episode. An American U-2 spy plane was shot down over the Soviet Union. The United States was forced to admit the planes role as a secret oversight aircraft when the Soviet government beared its remains and surviving pilot. Along with spy, planes there were umteen other issues the United States had been involved in during this time with other countries (Goldman, Lillian).At the end of existence War II, tutelages of a communist subversion overly heightened as Fidel Castro led the transformation of Cuba into a one regiony left re familiar and Cubas revolutionary government became economically and militarily dependent on the Soviet Union. The Cuban Missile Crisis occurred betwixt the United S tates, the Soviet Union, and Cuba during the Cold War. In September 1962, the Cuban and Soviet governments placed nuclear missiles in Cuba. When United States military intelligence discovered the weapons, the U.S. government did all it could to visualize the removal of the missiles.The quadruplet Race was a competition between the United States and the Soviet Union in the exploration of outer space. It involved revolutionary efforts to launch artificial satellites, send man into space, and land him on the moon. The Space Race took place during the Cold War and had its start in the missile-based arms race between the two nations. It effectively began with the Soviet launch of the low Earth-orbiting artificial satellite, Sputnik 1, in 1957 (Goldman, Lillian).Moreover, the election of 1960 began. The United States presidential election of 1960 attach the end of Dwight D. Eisenhowers two marges as President. Eisenhowers evil President was Richard Nixon, who was now running himself for the Re semipublican nominating address, along with brand- red-hot York Governor Nelson Rockefeller and Arizona Senator Barry Goldwater, epoch the Democrats nominated Massachusetts Senator John F. Kennedy, Texas Senate Majority Leader Lyndon Johnson, Missouri Senator Stuart Symington, condition governor of Illinois Adlai Stevenson, and Minnesota Senator Hubert Humphrey. The electoral vote was the closest since the election between T. Woodrow Wilson of New Jersey and Charles Hughes of New York in 1916 where Wilson edged out Hughes by a margin of 277 to 254. The electoral vote totals in the election of 1960 were not as close with Kennedys 303 to Nixons 219 (Carney, Francis M).In the popular vote, Kennedys victory was among the closest eer in American history. Kennedy garnered 49.7% of the popular vote while Nixon held 49.6% . However, an election is not based on the popular vote scarcely the electoral vote. The electors genuinely cast the vote, pith a president without the popular vote can be elect president. The 1960 election is still of great vie historically among many people as to whether voter fraud in selected supposes benefited Kennedys victory, which was one of the major issues inwardly this election. The election consisted of 531 electoral votes plus the addition of 2 U.S. Senators votes and 1 U.S. Representatives vote from two(prenominal) Alaska and Hawaii.On January 3 and August 21 of 1959, Alaska and Hawaii were granted statehood allowing the states to participate in their first presidential election. This was precisely only one of the firsts during the election. This was overly the first election where a candidate carried more than half the states (Nixon with 26) but lost the presidency, and it was the first election in which the four debates were guinea pigly televised which is another major factor resulting to Kennedys victory.Accepting the nomination to begin with a crowd of 75,000 people in Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum, Se nator Kennedy introduced (4President Corporation). The New Frontier of the 60s. We stand today on the edge of a new frontier the frontier of the 1960s a frontier of unknown opportunities and perils a frontier of unfulfilled hopes and threats. This resulted in the Democratic slogan, And so, my fellow Americans Ask not what your country can do for you ask what you can do for your country(4President Corporation).Kennedys foment promises amounted to many as he recognized the nation as having fall behind the Soviet Union in the Cold War militarily and economically and promised to get America moving again. He recognized the fear of becoming a communist country and promised to fight against it. He identify himself with the liberal form tradition of the Democratic Party of Franklin Roosevelt and Harry Truman and promised a new surge of legislative innovation in an attempt to win the vote of conservative Catholics and to show he encouraged the civil rights movement. Kennedy back up a h igher minimum wage, increased unemployment compensation, a broader federal lodgment program, and safer working conditions. He assured farmers of a fair share of national income his surplus food distribution and food-for-peace greenbacks received wide support from both urban and rural organizations. As Senator, Kennedy drafted a 10-point plan to provide older people with housing, medical exam care, and recreational facilities. He as well as sponsored a bill to provide for hospital, nursing, and medical care for older citizens (4President Corporation). In addition, as lead of the establishment Operations Sub committee, Kennedy guided The Hoover Commission bill, which estimated to ultimately preserve the taxpayers $4 billion annually (4President Corporation).Aside from his promises, Kennedy was a member of the Senate Rackets Committee. This committee battled relentlessly to free American labour and management from racketeers, hoodlums, and union busters. Senator Kennedy in li ke manner spent four years in the military services and 14 years in Congressional service, thus familiarizing himself with several branches of the U.S. Government (4President Corporation).Kennedys candidacy was controversial because no Roman Catholic had ever been elected president. However, Kennedy was aware of the dangers of mixing religious and political organizations. He strongly promoted the insularism of church and state It is my firm belief that there should be with barfal of church and state as we understand it in the United States that is, that both church and state should be free to operate, without interference from each other in their respective areas of jurisdiction (letter to Glenn L. Archer, 23 February 1959).Also initially criticized by some Democratic Party elders, including former President Harry Truman, Kennedy was viewed as too youthful and inexperienced to be President these critics suggested that he should change course to be the running mate for a more ex perienced Democrat. notwithstanding the criticism, Kennedy continued his run for presidency and selected Lyndon Johnson to be his running mate.In contrast, Kennedys rival Richard Nixons social movement promised to promote in all fifty states he also pledged to keep the federal government from dominating the free foodstuff economy in the lives of the American people. He promised he was not going to join the parade of those who promise to spend more while ignoring the realism of the present situations. He acknowledged that the cost of living was rising and more government spending would only add to inflation, hurting those people it was meant to help. He indicated a compute cut, not increase, and suggested it would be an act of total irresponsibleness to promise additional federal billions that were simply not available. Nixon promoted and encouraged tax cuts and presented a plan for economic growth and deficit reduction that appealed to many. Nixon also valued to make consi derable progress toward balancing the federal budget so that millions of Americans could make possible balancing their family budgets and promised to not neglect education (4President Corporation).Like Kennedy, Nixon had military time. Nixon joined the Navy to serve in knowledge domain War II, rising to become a lieutenant commander and resigning in 1946. In 1947, he was elected a U.S. Representative. In addition, in 1950 he became a U.S. Senator, where he worked until being selected as Eisenhowers running mate in 1953, becoming one of the youngest Vice Presidents in American history. This contributed to Nixons presidential campaign in 1960, when he chose Henry Cabot Lodge to run as his Vice President (4President Corporation).Candidates tend to focus their electoral campaigns either on form _or_ system of government issues or on personal images. Social psychologists idea of priming stresses a notionally conceivable campaign outline for treating image and issues as interconnected strategical concerns.Evidence suggests that Kennedy deliberately used these popular strategies to shape the electorates standards for evaluating his personal attributes preferably than to win over helpful maximizing voters (The Structure of Electoral government activity 362). Sneaky unclear policy positions and attractive personal images of strength, boldness, competitiveness, honesty, and trustworthiness, project a favourable personal attribute and image. How ever, this is a risky system for attribute together a party base and attracting wavering voters. land is a way to understand the unification of image and issues in campaign strategies. This suffice suggests that candidates use popular policy issues to influence the electorates standards for evaluating their personal attributes. Priming focuses public attention on certain topics and provides the main basis for evaluation. Because mass media provides individuals with ofttimes information, it can be considered a priming st imulus. The message communicated through and by the media during an election significantly influences the attitudes and information that are likely to be retrieved and corporate into voters judgments (Issues, Candidate Image, and Priming 528).During the Kennedy campaigns, Louis Harris, polling engineer and conductor serving on the Kennedy strategy committee, used inventive public opinion surveys to heighten the interest and learning in using position winning to shape the candidates image taking limited information about voters policy preferences. Harris devoted a scratch of his surveys to tracking and analysing the publics image of Kennedys personality and his job performance. Kennedys aides carefully introduce their candidates image and attempted to identify his perceived personal characteristics that were considered unfavourable. The campaign wanted to identify issues that both appealed to party activists and responded to the concerns of the centrist voters (Issues, Candidat e Image, and Priming 529).The campaign introduced major innovations in terms of number, structure, and political use of opinion canvass. Campaigns draw on analysis of individual perceptions and distinctions between availability and accessibility of public information and attitudes. Kennedys campaign objective was to use priming to construct an image that would be noticeably different from Nixons. They decided to fashion a move- onward image for Kennedy to demonstrate a large difference between the republican and Democratic candidates. The campaign used popular policy issues as part of a priming strategy, along with salient accessible issues in companionship to construct an appealing image of the candidate as competent and caring. Priming is supported in evidence found in records and interviews, as well as in a combination of both interpretive and numerical analysis (Identifying the Persuasive Effects of Presidential Advertising 960). His campaign polls were based on personal int erviews with large representative samples in weaken states. Many of the states were polled at multiple occasions. There were sixty-six polls during the primary(a) and general election campaign twenty-six of them were between September and November, meaning that the polls were bunched into six weeks. The questions what is the most important problem? and what do you think can be done? measure the importance of an issue, which tells how a concomitant policy area is ranked compared to other issues (Issues, Candidate Image, and Priming 530).Kennedy conservatively reacted to the area divisions and the public opinion in terms of the Democratic Party, Kennedy was thoroughly guided by polling on voters concerns. His success in using this strategy confirms the role of competitive elections and leadership selection.Public opinion became more authoritative during and after the nationally televised debates. The first debate was over domestic issues. Questions were asked of both Nixon and K ennedy to address their position on farm surpluses, expanding welfare programs for schools, teacher salaries, medical care, reducing the federal debt, and their opinion on communist threats to our national security.An estimated 80 million viewers watched the first debate. TV viewers believed Kennedy had won he was well rested before the first debate and appeared tanned, confident, and relaxed during the debate. In contrast, Nixon insisted on campaigning until just a few hours before the first debate and had not completely recovered from his hospital stay for his knee injury, thus looking pale and sickly, as well as underweight and tired. Resulting from his refusal to resist makeup for the first debate, his beard stubble showed particularly on the eras black-and-white TV screens. Radio listeners believed Nixon had won. However, after the debate had ended, polls showed Kennedy moving from a slight shortfall into a slight lead over Nixon (forefrontcil, David L., and litigate D. Pend ell).The second debate addressed issues dealing with the defence of two sensitive islands off the Chinese mainland named Quemoy and Matsu, civil rights, and the U-2 flight incident. Political observers at the time believed that Nixon had won this debate as well as the third debate, which was also based on the Quemoy and Matsu island problem and questions over the US economy.The fourth debate was considered the strongest of the four debates by both candidates but was still seen as a draw. This debate focused on nuclear weapon testing and strange policies (Kraus, Sidney).On October 2, 1960, during a sit-in in Atlanta, Martin Luther King, Jr. was arrested and sentenced to a four-month term in prison. He was taken to the state prison at Reidsville, Georgia. Presidential candidate John F. Kennedy called Coretta Scott King to express sympathy. Kennedy then contacted Georgias Governor Ernest Van diver seeking Kings release from Reidsville Prison. King was released after eight age in jai l. This ultimately resulted in Kennedy receiving more black votes and more votes from Federal/Mid westward cities. On the contrary, Nixon remained uninvolved in this issue.Eisenhower was a strong benefactor of Nixon throughout the election. He made strong campaigns for Nixon and began a tour on behalf of the Republican candidate over the last ten days before elections, which lead to a boost leaving Nixon and Kennedy at a tie. The support of Eisenhower resulted in rural suburban areas in the Midwest favouring Nixon. Although, when President Eisenhower was asked to give one example of a major idea of Nixons that he adopted, his answer was, If you give me a week I might think of one. I dont remember,(Eleanor Roosevelt, John Kennedy, and the Election of 1960). which ended up damaging Nixons campaign.When regarding fraud in this election, the first issue addressed are the claims made that mobster Giancana had connections with the Kennedy family and is believed to urinate influenced t he election in Illinois and assisted in Kennedys defeat of Nixon. Giancana and Kennedy also were believed to be sharing the same mistresses and passing information to each other through her. At the end of the election, Kennedy was also accused of voter fraud in states and counties including Fannin County and Angelina County, Texas, where more votes were casted then registered. Fraudulent voters were accused in Cook County, and Chicago, Illinois, as well.Kennedy won Hawaii and Illinois he carried twelve states total, including all northeast and southerly states except for North Carolina, Georgia, and Texas. Kennedy also carried California however, he lost the state to Nixon.Nixon won California and carried six states, all but three western states including California, and Ohio, which was his biggest victory. Nixon also carried Hawaii, although he ended up losing the state to Kennedy after absentee ballots were counted. Nixons campaign staff encouraged a recount in Illinois, Missouri, and New Jersey, but Nixon declined. Eventually Nixons chairman challenged eleven stated to be recounted, but the only overturned state was Hawaii. Respectfully, Richard Nixon refused to call for any recounts or investigations, under the adopt that such an action might cause a constitutional crisis.Moreover, influences in the presidential election of 1960 that affected the electoral behaviour consisted of the issues shadowing from World War II, the issues ahead leading into the Cold War and political movements within the nation, the use of priming, and the suspicion of fraud during the election.

Efficient Market Hypothesis (EMH) History and

streamlined grocery Hypothesis (EMH) History andPART 2 EFFICIENCY grocery HYPOTHESISIntroductionIn order to better understand the line of credit and the idea behind the Efficient Market Hypothesis (EMH), an everywhereview of the EMH, The Random paseo Model, different degrees of entropy susceptibility and the implications of efficient merchandises for investors atomic number 18 studied in the paper.Efficient Market HypothesisThe energy concept is one of the approximately essential concepts for investment management and outline. Market efficiency basically revolves well-nigh three related assumptions on tight-laced- allocation efficiency, cultivational efficiency and operational efficiency. capability in allocation is a vital characteristic of a real merchandise wherein the allocation of jacket is done in a proper way so that it benefits all the participants and helps in promotion of economic addition and status. readiness in operation is another crucial parameter which is employ commonly by economists to doctor wind and analyzes how resources argon utilized in the administer to benefit operational activities in the commercialize and industry.Efficiency in in diversityation helps to determine the actual commercialise value of packages ground on its inborn value. The Information efficiency signifies that reflection on all usable information pertaining to the securitys price must be used to determine the securitys observed grocery store price. (Hossain,Rahman, 2006)The introduction to the idea of trade efficiency was given by Bachelier (1900) and by and by it was termed as efficient market by Fama (1965)Fama (1970) further went on to state the vital conditions/ assumptions for maintaining efficiency supply of no transactional costs during the trading of securitiesAll information is freely available to all the participants in the market, andAgreement of all of them on the implications of the information relating to the present-day (prenominal) price and future distribution of prices of each securityHe determine three forms of informational efficiency, which are the weak form(underdeveloped), the getup-strong form( exploitation) and the strong form efficiency(developed).Forms of Market EfficiencyWeak-Form EfficiencyWeak form efficiency market implies that it is an efficient market which reflects all its market information accurately and does not provide wage for the investor based on historical records or rates. This past records stands invalid for the market. Fama (1970) stipulates in his theory that no investor can avail greater returns when the market is weak-form efficient. caseful African economy has a weak efficiency market wherein the inwardness to attain gains on investment is narrow based on past investment experience. Example trading test, auto correlation test and ramble test.Semi- untroubled Form EfficiencySemi Strong Form Efficiency market indicates that market is efficient and it reflects all unexclusive information. It says that the stocks are absorbant of all bare-ass information and incorporates it by adjusting to it. It is partly like the weak form efficiency market wherein the stocks rate are based upon new information that is released subsequently the stocks are bought. So making it intemperate for the market to be predictable. Fama (1970) explains the semi-strong form efficient market as the one where destiny price not only reflect on all information regarding its past and historic prices, but overly includes additional public information which is later on integrated with the shared price and adjusted to reveal the true share value. This also implies that an investor forget not be able to use the public information for the generation of gains in the evolving stock market. Event tests and time series/ regression tests are some examples.Strong Form EfficiencyThe Strong form efficient market relies on both public as well as private information wherein the stock prices are based and reflected upon. So an average investor cannot make much profit more than others also when he is given the new information. It incorporates both the weak form and semi strong form of market efficiency. Private information concerns the information that is not yet published or known only to the security analysts/ investment firm managers. The new public and private information is thence incorporated into the share price to represent its true share value. This makes it even more difficult for the investor to assess share determine. Examples are insiders, exchange specialists, institutional money managers and analysts who slang access to new information.Fundamental analysis and technical analysisThis analysis makes use of analysing and evaluating the financial statements, health of the business, efficiency of the management and their competitive advantages, succession also examining the competition in the market. When applied on forex and futures market i t uses production, participation rates, earnings, GDP, employment, manufacturing, housing and management analysis.While technical analysis predicts the future of market based on past prices, volume and market information. This is useful for deportment economics and quantitative analysis. Both these methods of analysis contradict the premise and take aim made on efficiency market theory which states that study of market with accuracy cannot be determined by any method.Implications of EMHMarket efficiency has some prominent implications concerned with both authorities and investors, which are mentioned underWhen a market is efficient they must1. Not worry to the eminentest degree analysis on their investments, but concentrate rather on developing a modify portfolio to get rewarded for their investments.2. Adopt to the policy of buy and lend oneself after establishing their portfolios as making frequent changing by change from one securities group to another would raise for th em unwarranted transaction costs. early(a) implications are based on the fact that changes in price are random and cannot be predicted, investors are smart enough to not get fooled by the financial reports circulated and stick uply the timing of security issues are not crucial.Investors must pay more attention to construct and hold diversified and efficient portfolios rather than taking to fundamental and technical analysis. This approach will definitely benefit them in the long run.Empirical Evidences for anomaliesThe empirical induction lists some of the significant anomalies which contradict the efficient market theory as listed belowThe January EffectIt is often noticed that the stock returns raise high abnormally in the first week of January which is defined as the January opinion wherein most of the investors opt to sell some of the stocks befor the year end and later claim for a capital loss to evade tax and then go on to make their reinvestments later on. (Rozeff and Kinn ey, 1976) surface EffectThe Size Effect is the small firms tendency, which holds a small capital market, to outweigh and surpass the market of larger companies and rise as an underdog over the long term. (Banz, 1981) and (Reinganum, 1981)Weekend EffectThis is a notable phenomenon wherein the stock returns are observed to be comparatively lower on Mondays as against those on the preceding Fridays. ( French, 1890)..Value EffectThe value effect related to the record of stocks that hold low cost, earnings ratio to outdo other selection portfolios of stocks which have higher cost, earnings ratio.Empirical Evidences from Developing CountriesDespite coarse empirical studies conducted in order to test and validate the Efficient Market Hypothesis in developed countries which witness a flourishing financial market, the pertinent studies on weak efficiency markets are limited in countries like Africa. Most developing and underdeveloped countries suffer a about-face due to the problem of th in trading (Mlambo and Biekpe, 2005). Fisher (1966) who first place this bias due to thin trading on his observation on correlation of return index, stated that the securitys price that are recorded are not similar to their respective underlying values based on theory as when a share trade fails, the recorded price remains the closing price as per the last share trade. It is also stressed that reasons like transactional costs, delay in trading operations and illiquidity of the market are crucial in determining a cover statistical evaluation of the study.BibliographyCohen, W. W., 1996. Learning trees and rules with set valued features. s.l.s.n.vol1.Fama, E., 1970. Efficient metropolis markets A review of theory and empirical work. 1ed. s.l,American Economic Review.Fisher, R. A., 1966. The design of experiments. 8ed. pertly York Hafner publishing.Mikhail, M. W. R., 2004. Do security analysts exhibit persistent Differences in Stock pick out ability. s.l.Journal of financial econo mics.Reiter, S. W. P. F., n.d. Scientific conversations in financial economics. Burlington Ashgate publishing company.

Play in Early Childhood | Theories

Play in Early Childhood TheoriesNature and component part of be given in early clawishness.Not only turning therapists, early interventionists, well-disposed workers or sociocultural researchers like for example Gnc (1999) project focussed in the last four decades on nestling romp exclusively to a fault all major develop affable theorists like Pi dayst, (1962), Vygotksy, (1976), Bruner (1972) or Erikson, (1977). Today, thus the indwelling quality that looseness possesses in the information of an infant during tikehood has been ac fellowshipd by most theorists and developmental psychologists strive to help mentally ill children with disparate command therapy techniques.Despite the fact that there is neither a satisfactory definition of run away nor consent about its conclude, as maintained by Bundy (2001), unmatched weed describe and define childrens lead behaviour as pleasurable, personally directed, intrinsically motivated and unbidden activities which arg on conducted in a safe, spontaneous, goal little context (Hughes, 2001) and which involve more(prenominal) than repetition and variation as the child explores the range of possibilities of behaviour (Butterworth Harris, 1998, p.140) in contents and intents where the child possess a sense of hear. Child period of dictation is both per editi onenessd in alone(p) or in brotherly groups and it is ceaselessly more intrinsically then extrinsically motivated even when children atomic number 18 thirstily and seriously engaged in diarrhoea activities which are rule governed. It also may to serve to explore inanimate objects or to explore homophile relationships and social business offices (see Butterworth Harris, 1998).Thus, child puzzle out is non only a candid term for simple operations and includes manifold activities with manifold purposes. It also has some diverse facets as it for, deterrent example, re move overs veracity in as-if or what-if term (symbolic spiri t of cinch) while at the same time connecting or linking different experiences (meaningful character of suffer). As it includes so many diverse aspects many definitions excite arose in the past with each definition providing a different encountering and variant of childrens play. In general, the play theories are divided into classical theories of play (e.g. Halls Recapitulation Theory, 1920 Groos Pre-Exercise Theory, 1984) and modern theories of play (Mellou, 1994). Classical theories of play originated in the nineteenth century and tried to explain the existence and purpose of play (Mellou, 1994). However, this brief paper intends to investigate and discuss the nature and role of play in early puerility with reference to theories of development and provide focus on contemporary theories (e.g. Psycho analytic theory, Cognitive theories) which were mainly devised aft(prenominal) the 1920s and which try to explain the role of play in child development (Saracho and Spodek, 1995 ).Psychoanalytic Theory Freud (1938) and colleagues developed the Psychoanalytic theory of play which arose through therapies which examined repressed memories of patients. In this sense, Freud concluded that child play is a mode of replacing negative feelings and emotions in a cathartic way with positive emotions. Thus, fitly, children who do non play sufficiently will proceed traumatized and possess destructively negative feelings passim the rest of their lives.Freud (1938) believed that acting represents not only a catalyst of negative feelings but serves also as a facilitator for grasping and comprehending unpleasant and agonizing experiences and represents, assetally, a brute for children to point their feelings and emotions (Wehman and Abramson, 1976). Psychotherapists like Takhvar (1988) or Erikson (1963) have modified and altered Freuds sign theory by relating ego branches, fear, anxiety, and wish fulfillment to play activities in children. Conflict solving and th e dramatisation of both past, present and future were, additionally, identify by Erikson (1950) as the main characteristics of play and he, consequently, transformed Freuds psychosexual development grades into psychosocially relevant points. Peller (1952) concluded that adult roles are imitated in childrens fantasy play which, in turn, provides children with a sense of mastery that em antecedents them to volume with difficult real life situations and experiences. It was Murphy (1962) who concluded that in addition to all the mentioned benefits of child play, the acting out elements of play enable children not only to understand negative experiences from the past but allow for bear on of positive or e genuinely(prenominal)day experiences (see Saracho Spodek, 1995).Play Therapy Acting out is one of the pivotal elements of play therapy which can be regarded as an offspring of these psychoanalytical ideas (Axline, 1974). Play therapy has been predominantly employed in children wi th emotional difficulties and distortions and intends to minimise and decrease childrens mainly destructive emotions (e.g. anxiety, fear, in protective covering) through acting out these emotions. mirror image of a child during guided play situations provides the therapists with insights about the emotional problems and difficulties face by the child and enables the therapists to explore ways for reestablishing the childs security and mastery of self, situation and sentiments.Cognitive Theories From Piaget to Vygotski The most influential figures for cognitive theories are Piaget (1962) and Vygotsky (1978) who both attempted to comprehend the precise relationship between cognitive developments and play behaviour in a child. In order to understand Piagets ideas on child play one has to be commencement exercise acquainted with his cognitive development theory in which assimilation and adaptation are the two most important and prevailing factors. Assimilation involves the proces s of a child assimilating and integrating immaterial information from the removed demesne into pre-existent mental structures while the ultimate goal is to gain a state of equilibrium where the cognitive balance is maintained. This is reached by children ceaselessly adapting and accommodating their imperfect and imbalanced mental structures in order to remediate their reception of real world information.This explains partly why children enjoy playing as they do not posit to adapt their cognitive schemes to the world anymore when they play but rather the world has to accommodate to the human race which they have created according to their own simple rules. Playing can be consequently seen as opposed by imitating where in production line assimilation predominates over accommodation.Piaget (1962) has, in total, identified three points of play and has described the sensorimotor stratum as the first followed by the symbolic and games with rules stages. A child experiences the different stages in a sequential order while every single stage includes different types of play (see Stagnitti, 2004).According to Piaget (1964) children indulge more in physical activities (e.g. play fighting) in the sensorimotor stage which practically involve objects but since playing with objects is too practical as to be concerned for the symbolic stage it solely occurs in the first stage of play development. The second stage evolves when children are approximately two historic period old and involves symbolic or making-believe play. One object representing another is a characteristic of symbolic play and represents a qualitatively new form of behaviour which is a pivotal evidence for the transition from early childhood to a new stage. Symbolic processes also enter into the playful exploration of social roles, as when children play at being bus drivers, nurses, teachers, or mothers and fathers. Unlike the simple practice of physical skills, symbolic play whence involves ima ginary reality. According to Baldwin (1905 in Butterworth and Harris, 1998), imagination is the general power of having mental images. Baldwin distinguished reconstructive imagination (as when one imagines a man on a horse from previous experience) from compounded imagination (as when one imagines a centaur from the previously separate memories of a man and a horse). Children enter the games with rules stage when they are about seven years old and this end stage of child play is complementary to Piagets concrete operational stage of development. In this stage, children become more and more interested in having social interactions while playing (e.g. chess, cards), according to Piaget (1968), and choose writing down fabricated stories instead of dramatic play. Physical or symbolic games are steady played throughout ones life although one chooses predominantly to play games which have tangible rules and which also satisfy the need in everyone to socialise and which come as close as attainable to reality (see Goldman, 1998).Nevertheless, referring to Lloyd and Howe (2003) one of straight offs principal and chief theoretical debates in the study of play is whether solitary play represents either an advanced or im full-blown type of play. As a matter of fact, Piagets (1968) passel that the frequency of solitary play does significantly decline with age is not supported anymore. Moore and colleagues (1974) have rather discovered that solitary play persists throughout different stages and becomes even more mentally mature with age In a similar vein, Rubin and collaborators (1983) reported that children below 5 years of age were yet not able to engage themselves in sophisticated solitary games as much as 5-year-olds were and while children going to kindergarten were found to like solitary-constructive play, preschoolers play observably more available solitary games. Consequently, in contrast to what has been assumed by Piaget (1968) one can impossible ones socia l maturity by purely looking at the fall of social interaction and neglecting relevant cognitive aspects (Lloyd and Howe, 2003, Stagnitti and Unsworth, 2000).In sum, Piaget (1968) believed that changes in cognitive development underlie changes in forms of play with only mirroring the achieved cognitive developmental stage but without play helping to lead to more mature cognitive developmental stages. He was recently criticised by Elkonin (2005) as he did not offer any details about the essential child-adult interactions during his experiements but completely omitted them.Piagets (1968) viewpoint stands in stark contrast to Vygotsky (1976) who potently believed that play facilitates and accelerates cognitive development in children. Vygotskis approach was not only dissimilar to that of Piaget but also to those of Freud as he think on normal problems in childrens development whereas Freud took more the native cases of traumatised children into consideration. His ideas were, nevert heless, in accordance with many other well-known theorists like for instance Bruner (1972, 1999) or Russ (1995) who like him saw sociodramatic play which is discovered by 2-year-oldsas essential for emotional, cognitive and emotional development. In his eyes, sociodramatic play serves as a tool to imitate the adults and thus enabled children to experience situations and activities for which they were actually too immature in order to experience them in real life situations. In play the child functions supra his average age, above his usual everyday behaviour, in play he is head high above himself (Vygotsky, 1976, p.552). Similarly, in sociodramatically play situations objects can be better defined by children and social norms are more successfully internalised and behaviour can be steadily accommodated according to these norms. An existing imaginary situation and rules are the two factors that distinguish this self-regulatory play from other early childhood behaviour (see Elias and Berk, 2001).The imaginary situation includes children acquiring the skill to make a distinction between cognitive perspicacity and physical action from external stimuli. As a consequence, children control external stimuli and objects in play situations as they voluntarily determine the significance and identity operator of the situations and stimuli. The child, for example, decides independently whether a stick represents a telephone, a sparrow, a snake in the grass or anything else which he or she uses in make-believe situations. This independent power to select and create ones own universe above the existing reality transforms impulsive actions of a child into self-regulation (Vygotsky, 1978). According to Elias and Berk (2002) with increase age the childrens imagination becomes stronger and stronger and the more they grow up the less they need an object to be as similar as possible to the real world in play situations and thus they can sum in more self-regulatory ways with bo th the real and fantasy world.The obeying of rules during play is congruent with the childs desire to adapt to the social surroundings which demands acting alongside socially accepted and internalised norms and values. Hence, Vygotsky (1978) concluded that the adherence to rules during play is a central catalyst of satisfaction which children gain from playing. In sum, one conclude that sociodramatic play provides children with the greatest self-control possible (Vygotski, 1978, p. 99) as it demands from children to steadily fight against prompt and incarnated impulses while stressing social rules and coordination of goals and behaviour with those of others (Elias and Berk, 2002, p. 218).Many researchers have attempted to test Vygotskys (1978) sociadramatic play theory. The results of Elias and Berks (2001) study, for instance, in which they investigated compound sociodramatic play (CSD), solitary dramatic play, and dramatic play in preschool children, demo that those infants are benefiting significantly from CSD play who are most in need of improving their self-regulatory abilities. This finding was congruent to Vygotskys claim that self-restraint is very strongly tie in to sociodramatic play and that playing children constantly resist present impulses in order to adhere social norms that exists in the make-believe context. kraft and Berk (1998) offered more support for this theory in revealing that infants try to control their behaviour to act according to their thoughts and mental images as CSD was positively tally to the utilisation of self-guiding private speech.In sum, one can say that today Vygotskys notions about play in early childhood have received significantly more support than Piagets ideas. However these are by far not the only influential figures in developmental psychology and many theorists hypothesis about child play had to be left out due to the brief nature of this paper (Gnc, 1999). some other major idea of Vygotski (1978) which had g reat influence on child play research concerns the so-called zone of proximal development (ZND) which can be described as the difference between what a child can achieve with and without the help of parents (adults or peer groups). Vygotski viewed the adults as facilitating and potentialising opportunites for the child to lift up quicker and more effective in play situations as infants familiarity evolves much better through experience of parents leading and directing the child towards more ideal and mature solutions to problems (see Butterworth and Harris, 1998). However cognitive development is restrain to a limited time span in ones life which falls precisely into the ZND. This theory has been very influential in the language acquisition research. As children interact and play with peers particular models of expression, explanation and communication are developed. This generated language use is regarded by many (e.g. Goodman and Goodman, 1990, Tharp and Gallimore, 1988) as th e foundation for literacy.Jerome Bruner (1973, 1999) basically agrees with this notion that cognitive development is highly related to the systematic social interaction between a child and a parent, peer or teacher. Nevertheless, Bruners theory of cognitive development can be more linked to Piagets theory. Bruners postulated the idea that children evolve through different modes of represention in their intellectual development. He introduced three modes of representing understanding, namely, enactive, iconic and symbolic. The iconic government agency stage involves using images, pictures or photos that encapsulate or outline action to represent knowledge while the more primitive enactive mode involves representing knowledge solely through physical actions and thus is very compatible to Piagets sensorimotor stage. The symbolic mode, however, includes using, for example, symbolic or pretend play for representing cognitive advancement. Bruners theories have been very influential in ch ild play and music instructing sessions and represent a conclusive bridge between Piaget and Vygotskis theories (Atterbury and Richardson, 1995).ReferencesAtterbury, B. W., Richardson, C. P. (1995). The experience of teaching general music. New York McGraw-Hill.Axline, V.M. (1947). Play Therapy. Boston Houghton Mifflin.Baldwin, J.M. (1905). vocabulary of philosophy and psychology. London Macmillan.Bruner, J.S. (1972). Nature and Uses of Immaturity. American Psychologist, 8, 687708.Bruner, J. S. (1973). The growth of representation processes in childhood. In J. Anlin (Ed.), beyond the information given Studies in the psychology of discriminating (pp. 313-324). New York Norton.Bruner, J. (1999) Folk Pedagogies. In J. Leach and B. Moon (eds) Learners and Pedagogy. London capital of Minnesota Chapman.Bundy, A. (2001). Measuring play performance. In M. Law, D. Baum W. Dunn (eds) Measuring occupational performance supporting(a) best practice in occupational therapy. Thorofare, NJ Sla ck Inc. p. 89102Butterworth, George and Harris, Margareth (1998). Principles of developmental psychology. Hove Psychology Press.Elias, Cynthia L. and Berk, Laura (2002). Self-regulation in young children Is there a role for sociodramatic play? Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 17, 216-238.Elkonin, D.B. (2005). Theories of play. ledger of Russian and easternmost European Psychology, 43(2), 389.Erikson, E. H. (1985). Play and actuality. In J. S. Bruner et al. (eds) Play its role in development and evolution. New York, NY Penguin Books. p.668-704Freud, S. (1938). The basic writings of Sigmund Freud, New York Modern Library.Freud, S. (1961). Beyond the pleasure principle. New York, NY Norton.Goldman, L. (1998). Childs play myth, mimesis, and make-believe. Oxford Berg.Gnc, A. (1999). Childrens engagement in the world sociocultural perspectives. New York Cambridge University Press.Goodman, Y.M. and Goodman, K.S. (1990) Vygotsky in a whole language perspective.In L. Moll (Ed.) Vygotsky and Education instructional implications and applications ofsociohistorical psychology. Cambridge Cambridge University Press.Groos, K. (1916), The Play of Animals. Zeitschrift Psychologie, 133.Groos, K. (1985). The play of animals Play and instinct. In J. S. Brunner, A. Jolly K. Sylva (eds) Play its role in development and evolution. New York, NY Penguin Books. p.6883Hall, G. S. (1920). Youth. New York, NY A. Appleton.Hughes, B. (2001) Evolutionary Playwork and reflective analytic practice. London Routledge.Lloyd, Bronwen and Howe, Nina (2003) Solitary play and convergent and divergent thinking skills in preschool children. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 18, 2241Mellou, E. (1994). Play theories A contemporary review. EarlyChild Development and Care, 102, 91100.Moore, N. V. et al.. (1974). Solitary play some functional reconsiderations. Developmental Psychology, 10, 830834.Murphy, L.B. (1962). The widening world of childhood. New York Basic BooksPeller, L.E. (1952). Models of childrens play. psychological Hygiene, 36, 66-83.Piaget, J. (1962). Play dreams and imitation in childhood. New York, NY W. W. Norton.Rubin, K.H., et al. (1983). Play. In E.M. Hetherington (ed.) Mussens enchiridion of child psychology. New York Wiley. P.693-741Russ, S. W. (1995). Play psychotherapy research State of the science. In T. H. Ollendick and R. J. Prinz (eds.) Advances in clinical psychology, 17. New York Plenum. P.365391Saracho, Olivia N., Spodek (1995). Childrens play and early childhood education insights from history and theory. Journal of Education, 177(3), 129-148Stagnitti, K. (2004). Understanding play the implications for play Assessment. Australian Occupational Therapy Journal, 51, 312Stagnitti, K. Unsworth, C. (2000). The importance of pretend play in child development. British Journal of Occupational Therapy, 63, 121127.Takhvar, M. (1988). Play and theories of play a review of the literature. Early Child Development and Care, 39, p.221-244.Tharp, R. and Gallim ore, R. (1988) Rousing minds to life. Cambridge Cambridge University Press.Vygotsky, L. S. (1966). Play and its role in the mental development of the child. Voprosy Psikhologii, 12, 6276.Vygotsky, L. S. 1976 Play and its role in the mental development of the child in J. Bruner,A. Jolly, K. Sylva (eds), Play its role in development and evolution, New York BasicBooks. p6-18Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society the development of higher mental processes. Cambridge, MA Harvard University Press.Wehman. P. and Abramson, M. (1976). Three theoretical approaches to play. The American Journal of Occupational Therapy, 30(9), 551-559

Sexism in the Media and Music Industry | Essay

Sexism in the Media and Music Industry Essay foundation gar custodytSexism is the type of behavior created by a society through sexual practice conditioning which equ anyy sinks both men and women. Sexism is the subordination of whiz and yet(a) sex, commonly feminine, based on the assumed superiority of a nonher sex (Kend completely, 2004, p. 76). It refers to a dust of beliefs that objectifies and lowers the status of one sex and that creates reason of discrimination on the basis of this status. Examples of this attitude atomic number 18 sexist humor, sexist naming, sexual violence and fight discrimination. At personal level sexism refers to behaviors and attitudes that ar used in familiar interactions. Gender or sex role related to the difference amid men and women that are society or farming originated.SEXISM IN MEDIAIn the few last years we ca-ca read and watched women who are not afraid to talk egress about sexism attacks, abusively written about , threatened with hostile actions and existence send aggressive and sexu exclusivelyy exposit tweets, Facebook messages and emails. Almost every women have been on the receiving end of such clapperclaw and I hazard every women should stand up for herself and be heard, make-up this assignment can be just one small sort to achieve change, sight should realize how the media degrades women or the impact it has on individuals and our society.SEXISM IN MUSIC common culture takes everything to an extreme exaggeration, including this type of sexism, to earn profit. As the mainstream music industry that have gr make over the last 10 years, the majority of the meters that are being played on the radio and carry are not appropriate, rase the inappropriate haggling is replaced with almostthing cheesy and age-appropriate ,it does not help or change the message hidden in this melodic lines. In the article written by Tricia Ross There are Bitches and Hoes, she is addressing that rap/ belt and urba n culture has often promoted the demeaning of women in the music industry. Popular old hip bound off artisans like Too small, Dr. Dre, 50 Cent, and snitch Dogg are among the few hip hop artists that are allowing the contaminating of women. supervises popular lyrics Bitches aint shit, but hoes and tricks, and Too Shorts song Gangstas and Strippers are so inappropriate for being released on the music industry. The hip hop culture advertises the idea that being a pimp to a woman is completely fine. Their defense being that they are talking about a reality of animation and dare nation to deny it (Rose 322). Popular artist like Snoop tries to justify his song by tell he is not talking about all the women even though even though they dont subtend the type of women they sing or rap about. There is no research that the sexism thats in our hip-hop videos is a reflection of how sexist men are in the world today. Its just that in the early(prenominal) things werent so obvious (Russ ell Simmons, co-founder of Def. Jam Records). Since its birth in 1974 coin bank todays popularity worldwide, hip-hop music has extremely changed. Nowadays in the hip-hop music and music videos, there is many explicit words that degrades women. In many music videos women have no individuality and are promoted as sexual playthings and eye candy.Artists, such as Eminem, Ludacris, R.Kelly, Lil Wayne, redbreast Thicke and Chris brown are among the many artist who describe women as objects of harassment or male controlled world by communicating that submission is a worthy action by woman. some of the messages in their song glorify sexism against women including rape, twist roughly and advertise gender objectification and dehumanizes women mainly.Robin Thicke and Pharell Williamss popular song in 2013 blurred lines created a controversy with the lyrics such as I fill out you indispensability it, But youre a good girl ,The way you see me, Must wanna get nasty ,well you cant know th ey want it unless they range you they want it, he assumes she want it. It advertises and promotes attitude towards sex and consent. Many people have called the song a rape song, the song would have fly censure if the music video, that had Robin Thicke, Pharell Williams and T.I all three of them dancing and goofing rough with barely dressed girls and that is the clean version, the other version had topless models, this has generated its own separate but also overlapping controversy. People who have been profession this song completely offensive to women have a strong case. Nevertheless, the song is about setting a good girl free by telling and showing her that she really wants some crazy sex that she is not even asking for. Robin Thicke keeps repeating the lyrics I know you want it while his rapping partner T.I. raps Ill give you something big enough to roll your ass in two.In GQ magazine when Robin Thicke was interviewed, he said, We act to do everything that was taboo. Bestia lity, drug injections, and everything that is completely derogatory towards women. Because all three of us are happily marry with children, we were like, Were the perfect guys to make fun of this.What underlies Robin Thickes depressing statement this that if the men respect their women, it is alright for them to degrade their women. The artist makes it sadly clear when he explains People say, Hey, do you think this is degrading to women? Im like, Of course it is. What a cheer it is to degrade a woman. Ive never gotten to do that before. Ive always respected women, not only is he saying it totally fine to degrade women, its actually fun.All issues in the world exist within these lines. The thought that its a pleasure to demean women after he had lived all his life respecting them is ridiculous. That its even funny or that he could do that because he is happily married with woman and has children is the thought of someone completely deluded, who has been living his complete life in a bubble of entitlement.Kanye atomic number 74s latest album has been accuse for its sexist words against women, it also has been criticized by male and female critics alike as a very amazing, brilliant and bold album. Most of the maintenance and reviews focused on Kanye Wests potential profanation and harmful use of racism, few people called out his offensive and degrading attitude towards women.Took her to the Bleau, she tried to sip the fountain/ That when David Grutman kicked her out/ But I got her back in and put my dick in her mouth.Those are some lyrics from Kanye Wests first track, On Sight, which seems to refer directly to Wests girlfriend and mother of his baby girl Kim Kardashian and her relationship with Grutman, who is one of the people in-charge of Fontainebleau hotel in Miami, which would means he wrote this disgusting lyrics about the women he allegedly loves and about to marry. West himself was raised by a individual(a) working mother, whom he respected and love d. He was raised by a feminist, although she was never named that but She was a strong-willed woman who had raised an artist who both claims to completely inspired and completely, purposely sexist.The most interesting situation about hip-hop artists using this language towards women to be alright is the womens reactions and behavior while listening to this music .When a young woman, a fan of the certain artist, listens to lyrics in the song like bitches and hoes, the hip hop musician is encouraging fans to imitate the behaviors and acts of these so-called bitches and hoes. Women participate not only in the acts these breasts are rapping about but also are have in the music videos. These women who participate in this videos are called video hoes or video vixen. When a women participates in this behaviors or staring in these rappers videos and even singing along in their car points out that they are okay with sexism. Being against sexism in a society or culture that takes advantage of it is not very easy, in a brass that rewards us for participating.In another parts of the world, a group consisting of all girl Indian rock band have been disbanded after being targeted online by hatred campaigns and have been issued fatwa (Islamic legal opinion handed put down by an Islamic religious leader) against them . Pragaash (meaning First Light in Kashmiri) have won the third place in the battle of the bands a disceptation thats being held in the Muslim dominated Kashmir, but the attention they gained after their achievement in the competition was so horrible that it caused them not to only stop their performances but to end their ties to the music industry, even one of three band members have fled her city to another.These girls have been called whores and prostitutes by these online hate campaign members and are being called indecent by the issued fatwa against them, while they were all wearing jeans, scarfs and long-sleeved shirts/jackets. While many members of bo th local and online communities have shown their shop for the band members, others have being continuously threatening the girls and their immediate families, and they accused the girls of western-style culture influence.The nature of this matter is obviously affected by culture and religious differences but the main fact remains the same, that sexism is common around the globe. It also asks the question of how much more do we need to develop before it is universally know that this type of act is not simply unfair or harmful but that it is also a crime.

Behind The Gare Saint-Lazare :: essays research papers

As one of the worlds first gear photojournalists, Henri Cartier-Bresson has transformed the profession through his concept of the decisive moment, the hammy climax of a turn in where everything falls perfectly into place. Traveling extensively since 1931, Cartier-Bressons images have been renown throughout the world due to his curious sense of timing and his intuition in seizing the right moment.To richly understand Cartier-Bressons pictures, one must first understand his artistic philosophy. Born in 1908 in Chanteloup, near Paris Cartier-Bressons offense for photography erupted from his love for the former(a) motion pictures. As he would later(prenominal) say, From some of the great strikes, I learned to look, and to see. Films such as Eisensteins Potemkin and Dreyers Jeanne dArc impressed him deeply. Cartier-Bresson yearned to capture rattling life. He believed in order to do this the subject must be oblivious to the photographer. Indeed, he has never in his professional career contrived a setting or arranged a photograph, an outlook that stems from his salubrious belief that the photographer should blend into the environment and not influence the expression of his subject. Cartier-Bresson sees photography as, a way of shouting, of freeing oneself, not of proving or take a firm stand ones own schoolmasterity.Cartier-Bresson worked only with a Leica camera, one of the quietest and fastest of the day. The Leica camera was perfect for Cartier-Bressons documentary style photography, but as an added incumbrance he put stark tape over the metallic campaign as to remain as hidden as possible, a proficiency that has been copied ever since. He used mainly a 50mm lens and black and white film. Cartier-Bresson shot his pictures with a 50mm lens, because in order to capture a decisive moment, one must be ready at any given instant, not allowing time to change lenses. Also, maintaining the full size of the original photograph was very important to Cart ier-Bresson. He felt that cropping a picture would dilute its meaning.Cartier-Bressons use of black and white film is a result of the technology of his day. Though color film was available as early as 1907, it remained difficult to use until the 1970s. The early color film emulsions were very slow causing close shots to look cramped. Also, blurred backgrounds in color were much less acceptable than they were in black and white. These limitations caused early color photographs to confine themselves to static subject or bright lights. So as a spontaneous photojournalist Cartier-Bresson had little choice in the matter.

Revenge and Hatred in Sylvia Plaths Daddy Essay -- Sylvia Plath Daddy

Revenge and Hatred in Plaths pa The power of Plaths Daddy to threaten, shock and move the reader remains undiminished, years after it was written. To the unsuspicious reader, the experience of first reading Daddy is a confusion of discomfort, inflaming and guilty pleasure, for the pleasures of avenge are said to be sweet, and this is a revenge poem of the first rank. Revenge upon whom? Father? Perhaps, more likely, upon her husband. And her aim was true, for if anything Plath wrote damaged Ted Hughes for posterity, Daddy is it. From this poem, we gather our indelible impressions of Hughes as a brute, a wife beater, a vampire, even an implied racist and murderer (if we extend the Hitler metaphor to its fullest implications) . . . on and on. The controversial Holocaust imagery can be directly think to the period in which the poem was written. In 1961, the entire world was riveted by the Jerusalem trial of Nazi SS Lieutenant Colonel Adolph Eichmann (who was executed in 1962, a few months before Daddy was written). This was the first televised trial in history, an...

General William T. Sherman :: General Sherman Essays

One of the most colorful characters of the Civil struggle was a oecumenical named W sneezyiam T. Sherman. During the period of the war (1861-1865), General Sherman went full circle from being forced to retire on trumped up charges that he was insane, to turn a key player in bringing this bloody war to a close. He entered the annals of military history as wizard of the greatest and most distinguished generals of all time. William T. Sherman was born to Charles N. Sherman and Mary Hoyt Sherman in Lancaster, Ohio, on February 8, 1820. General Sherman can trace his family history back to England. The Sherman family basic came to the New World in 1634, settling in Boston, Massachusetts. Several family members achieved notorial puffiness including Roger Sherman, a signer of the Declaration of Independence, and Daniel Sherman, who sat in the Connecticut General Assembly for 30 years. In addition, Shermans father became a produce Supreme Court Judge in Ohio.William T. Sherman was on ce thrown from a horse as a young child and was not judge to live. In 1829, things would once again take a turn for the worsened with the Sherman Family. Shermans father was away on the circuit when the elder Sherman took ill and died. No doubt this caused a problem for Mrs. Sherman to have to support 10 children. Family members and friends took all but the three youngest children to raise in their homes. A family of gibbousness took in Young William. Senator Thomas Ewing and his wife took in young William and case-hardened him like their own son. Senator Ewing was the first Secretary of the Interior for the United States. It was Senator Ewings influence that helped William get into West Point in 1836. William graduated in 1840, 6th in his class. Sherman would later marry his stepsister Ellen Ewing on whitethorn 1, 1850, in the Blair House in Washington, D.C. Sherman and his wife would eventually have several(prenominal) children together, including a young son who died during th e Civil War, just as professorship Lincolns young son had died. One of Shermans sons became a Catholic priest at the urging of his mother who was a religious Catholic. General Sherman himself converted to Catholicism but never really genuine the religion as his own.In peacetime, Sherman was unsuccessful at several chore attempts just like Ulysses S. Grant. Ironically it was the Civil War that distinguished them as historical immortals.

The Problem of Symbol in Philosophy :: Symbolism Religion Essays

The Problem of Symbol in Philosophy lacking works citedThe man of the world is indivisible from the point of view of the consciousness. The categories of piazza and time be disposed outside his mind, out of the limits of his conscience. The wanderer everywhere is a metaphysical hero traveling along the landscape of thought, he moves absolutely freely, nonwithstanding the national or temporal forms it (that is, the thought) takes. For all these are living forms, and the traveler is metaphysically alive. Therefore - Mamardashvilli and Montaigne, and Pascal, and Descartes, and Rousseau. And Proust, at last....Listening attentively to The Lectures about Proust, we find the talk of the doubles and cannot distinguish between the commentator and the prototype. In the final layers of the French novel there glimmers the mind of the Georgian philosopher. The idea of the artist (in regard to the idea of the artist) arises in the soul of the thinker. The intelligent impression is impossibl e without the spiritual predisposition, without the inner catastrophe of the spirit. The spirit is unsounded as a principle of reviving of the soul, its coming into contact with the unavowed of the inhabitence. The spirit is the unique and ideal internality, the objective foundation of the ontos that we survive at the highest point of the thought or passion. I am a cerebration thing... It is something doubting, understanding, asserting, denying, willing, unwilling and having imagination and feelings.The great dualist Descartes You were the only one to understand the integrity of the being. The existence is a subjective experience of the reality of meanings, so the substance and the existence (but not the being) are on the opposite poles of the universal, like cardinal pointed ends of the needle, which one can neither seize, nor break. Between them there lies the ideal timeless existence of abstract intentions they are abstract in the sense that not a perceptive object, clear without any words, opposes it, but just the spirit, the mere idea. other the death. We cannot feel it, but we can symbolize it. Put it into shape by means of the intentional movement. The symbol arises there and then, where and when the existence and the spirit jumble in one and only point.The substance and its life are not broken into categories. They (that is, the substance and life) break the intellectual structures, keeping the intellect, which is capable to exist outside any plans, definitions and even explanations.